The Value of Coal Fly Ash
Fly ash, the residue left from coal combustion is primarily used as an additive in concrete improving its durability and strength. It can also be used in bricks, tiles, and road fill. It does have significant value and can be sold. It is estimated that the global market for fly ash is $13.5B USD. However, most fly ash is not reused and 60% of it is simply sent to a landfill.
This has been the long-standing value and use, however, the Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that there are several million tons of Rare Earth Elements (REE) that could be recovered from fly ash and coal mine residues. The total value of REEs could exceed $50 billion. The DOE has issued a report and is funding several projects to determine feasibility. There are many challenges to overcome including extraction efficiency, purity levels, environmentally safe practices, and variations in the REE present in different regions of coal.
The DOE has already demonstrated methods for extracting these metals at its Battelle facility. Acid leaching is used to dissolve metals present in the ash. Aluminum and Zinc are often found with rare earth metals and their presence can interfere with REE purification processes. Aluminum is easy to remove, but Zinc requires a special extractant. The result of this demonstration was to produce 90% pure Lanthanum Oxide.
The DOE is enabling early commercial production of REEs from unconventional sources. Several universities are currently working on this process development. The DOE has emphasized the need for more R&D to work on the technical challenges and the need for integration of advanced technologies for efficient and scalable mineral recovery. The REEs commonly found in coal byproducts include: Lanthanum, Cerium, Neodymium, Praseodymium, Samarium, Gadolinium, Yttrium, Dysprosium, Europium, and Terbium. These will vary by region.
The northern Appalachian coal basin contains >300 mg/L of Neodymium, Dysprosium, and Yttrium. Central Appalachia contains Praseodymium, Samarium, and Gadolinium. Rocky mountain coal contains a mixture of REE. Even though they are called Rare Earth metals, they are plentiful in the Earth’s crust. The problem is that they are found in low concentrations. So, the amounts found in fly ash, while low, are not much different that is found in natural ore bodies.
While studies are currently being done on various extraction methods, rare earth metals are already mined and extracted using acid leaching. So, this process is well known. The key to unlocking this hidden wealth will be developing efficient advanced technologies to enhance separation and purification. VSEP has been used for a neodymium mining project in Australia. The VSEP uses an acid resistant Nanofiltraiton (NF) membrane to purify the sulfuric acid leach solution removing metals and other contaminants so that the acid can be recycled and reused. Instead of maintaining a tailing pond with spent acid, the company will be able to recycle acid and have no storage of acid waste.
Artificial Intelligence Requires a lot of Water
Semiconductor wafer manufacturing involves many steps. High purity silicon is firs extracted from sand. Then following the Czochralski process, the silicon crystals are grown into ingots. Then these are sliced into thin wafers. After cutting the wafer need to be polished so it is very smooth with no imperfections. Once polished this acts as the substrate for the placement of integrated circuits in a clean room.
To perform the polishing a chemical abrasive slurry is used with oscillating pads. This process is known as chemical mechanical polishing, or CMP. Typically, the abrasive used is an aluminum, silicon, or cerium based oxide. The chemicals added to the liquid slurry can include surfactants, organic compound additives, and ammonium hydroxide. During polishing metals can be introduced by the wear of the pad and equipment. Also very fine particulates are removed from the wafer as the abrasion occurs. The abrasive slurry can only be used some long and then needs to be replaced. This generates a wastewater that need treatment prior to discharge.
In 2014, New Logic began working with semiconductor company in Silicon Valley to treat this wastewater slurry. The client had been hauling this material at a cost of $1000 per day. Because of the particulates, they were not allowed to sewer discharge. The objective was to remove the suspended solids and then us deionization tanks to make clean water that could be discharged or used as cooling tower make-up. After pilot testing, a full-scale system was installed in early 2015. The wastewater only contained about 0.2% suspended solids, but because of the very fine colloids present that do not settle, the turbidity was very high. The VSEP installed used a 0.05 µm microfiltration membrane that produced filtrate with near zero turbidity and a final concentrate that was only about 5% of the total starting volume.
The suspended solids of the concentrate measured about 4%. This resulted in a 95% reduction in hauling costs. The client is considering a filter press to make a cake material from the VEP concentrate that can just be landfilled eliminating all the hauling costs.
Because ultrapure water is used to begin with, the dissolved solids concentration is very low and the conductivity measured 70 µS. So the filtered water has many potential uses in the facility. The VSEP system achieved a very high flux rate of 173 GFD (294 LMH).
Semiconductor manufacturing requires a lot of ultrapure water and there is a movement to recycle as much of this water as possible. Deployment of VSEP would allow for complete reuse and zero-liquid discharge. Many new fabrication plants are being built in areas that are water starved such as Arizona. Access to clean water is critical for the multi-billion dollar facilities. In addition to all the water needed to manufacture the semiconductor chips that will be needed to fuel the AI boom, data centers are consuming vast amounts of water for cooling of the equipment. These also could benefit from a VSEP ZLD process.
Lithium Drillers Flood into Texas
The “Smackover Formation” is a large lithium brine deposit recently discovered in East Texas and bordering states. It has some of the highest lithium concentrations ever reported in North America. The average Lithium concentrations in the study area were 668 mg/L with some wells showing as high as 806 mg/L. The Lithium is found in the upper and middle Smackover formation which is porous and ideal for brine extraction. There is about 2.16 million metric tons of Lithium Carbonate equivalent. By comparison, the Lithium concentration at Albemarle’s Silver Peak mine in Nevada is about 200-400 mg/L. Salar brine projects in Chile and Argentina can range from 600 to 6,000 mg/L of Lithium.
Major oil companies already active in the region are now drilling for Lithium. Chevron and Halliburton announced projects this summer. TerraVolta is planning operations in the area and has received $225M from the US department of energy in 2024 for its Lithium refinery complex. The project has been fast tacked for permit review. The will extract the brine, harvest the minerals, and reinject the leftover fluid back into the aquifer. There are at least two other refineries planned for the area.
A VSEP system can be used to improve the harvesting method and to remove most of the water before even starting with extraction. This would mean the less volume is handled and the water can be returned to the aquifer.
VSEP systems can also be configured with nanofiltration (NF) membranes to perform molecular-level separations. NF membranes allow monovalent ions like lithium to pass through while rejecting multivalent ions such as calcium and magnesium. This selective separation simplifies downstream purification and reduces chemical consumption. One of the key challenges in lithium solution mining is the presence of a complex mixture of dissolved ions. VSEP NF offers a cost-effective method to isolate lithium from this “ionic soup,” streamlining the overall extraction process.
If the lithium extraction process will use chemical precipitation to remove multivalent metals, then VSEP fitted with an Ultrafiltration (UF) membrane can remove suspended solids. The precipitates tend to be very small and could be removed with a clarifier, but only with large doses of flocculent chemical representing a large operating cost. Also, even with flocculent, the separation of suspended solids will not be as good as that of UF in the VSEP.
Coal Power: Decreasing in the U.S., Surges in India
Coal continues to dominate India’s energy landscape, powering the majority of its electricity needs. With approximately 250 coal-fired power plants generating around 205 GW, coal accounts for 60–70% of India’s total electricity production. India is currently constructing 41 new coal-fired power plants, with 5 additional projects in development. These new facilities are expected to add 32 GW of capacity. Government forecasts suggest coal-generated power will increase by nearly 50%, reaching 307 GW by 2035.
Despite national goals to expand renewable energy and reduce reliance on fossil fuels, progress has been slow. Several regional governments have withdrawn incentives for clean energy projects. Rising demand for air conditioning, industrial electrification, and expanded access to electricity is driving the need for reliable baseload power—making coal a continued priority.
India’s environmental regulations for coal plants differ significantly from those in the United States. While 85–90% of U.S. coal plants have installed flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems to reduce sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emissions, India has lagged behind. A 2015 mandate required all Indian coal plants to install FGD systems. However, implementation has been slow. In 2025, the rule was revised: 79% of coal plants located more than 10 km from major cities are now exempt from installing FGD systems. Plants within 10 km of urban or critically polluted areas have been granted extensions to comply. Even where FGD systems are installed, India’s effluent discharge standards are significantly more lenient than those in the U.S. For example:
| Contaminant | India Limit | U.S. Limit |
| Arsenic | 200 ppb | 5 ppb |
| Mercury | 10,000 ppt | 5 ppt |
In the U.S., advanced technologies have helped mitigate coal’s environmental footprint. FGD systems have nearly eliminated acid rain and SO₂ emissions. However, these systems produce effluent rich in gypsum and heavy metals, requiring specialized treatment.
In the United States, The EPA has designated the Vibratory Shear Enhanced Process (VSEP) as a best available technology for treating coal plant effluent. The VSEP system uses torsional oscillation of a reverse osmosis membrane to generate incredibly high shear rates at the membrane surface. That allows this RO membrane filter to handle very difficult effluent like FGD wastewater without fouling and scaling and can produce very clean water meeting the strictest requirements for Mercury and Arsenic.
New Logic Research has been a trusted provider of water treatment solutions for the power industry since 1987. To explore how VSEP technology can support cleaner coal operations: VSEP FGD Effluent System. To speak directly with an experienced VSEP engineer: info@vsep.com
Wildfires and Water Quality
Water is an amazing chemical compound. It can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas in a relatively narrow temperature range. It can be a solvent and will dissolve many things. It is also drinking water for animals and sustenance for plant life. No life on Earth would exist without it. At New Logic Research, we have studied water and its behaviors for 38 years. We see new behaviors and situations all the time. We continue to learn about this precious resource.
The EPA has recently awarded several research grants to study the effect of wildfires on watershed that drain into drinking water supplies. Wildfires not only destroy trees, vegetation, wildlife, and structures, but they can severely affect water quality by causing soil erosion, debris flow, and release of harmful chemicals. Specifically, the studies have examined the effect on Arsenic, Nitrate, and Natural Organic Materials (NOM) concentrations. When Chlorine is used to sanitize the water and prevent biological growth, the side effect is the creation of trihalomethanes that are generated when too much humic material is present. Once the vegetation has burned, rainwater will runoff more easily instead of seeping into the ground. This will lead to more humic material being deposited into surface waters. In some cases, Chloramine is used instead to avoid this problem, but there are questions about the health effect of Chloramine. There also are risks associated with Chlorine resistant bacteria such as Giardia which comes from the feces of infected animals and is present in runoff water once vegetation is removed.
The study found that violations increased in surface water drinking sources that were near watersheds that experienced major wildfires. It found that Nitrate levels increased by 44 ppb in surface water sourced drinking water and by 120 ppb in ground water sourced locations. The drinking water limit for Arsenic is only 10 ppb. The study found that wildfires led to an increase of 0.92 ppb in Arsenic levels. Trihalomethanes from NOM materials rose by 10.4 ppb. Most contamination was found for a few months or up to a year after a wildfire. But studies found that water can be affected for a decade.
All of these contaminants are regulated under the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act, with monitoring data compiled in the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS). Excess nitrate can cause serious health issues such as blue baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia), while arsenic, disinfection byproducts (DBPs), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are recognized carcinogens. These findings highlight the need for proactive source water protection strategies. Improved watershed management and emergency response planning could help safeguard drinking water supplies from contamination following upstream wildfires.
Lessons Learned – The Hard Way
New Logic has installed several VSEP systems in South and Central America. Landfills in this region do not have access to hauling to the POTW or sewering the leachate. The typical method of dealing with leachate is to build storage ponds and keep building them when more capacity is needed. It is also common for companies to compete for operating a landfill and the leachate treatment if any. Local governments ask for quotes and select a company to operate and maintain equipment at the landfill. Some of these service companies are better than others.
In 2013, New Logic delivered a four-module VSEP system to a landfill in Central America. Because of large amounts of rainfall, this leachate was fairly dilute compared to others. Conductivity measured only 7500 µS. The VSEP system was commissioned and ran incredibly well with each VSEP module producing about 7 m3/hr (28 gpm) of permeate. This was sent to a second stage spiral system for polishing and the final treated water had conductivity of 100 µS. Since the problem they had there was excess water, VSEP removed water and the concentrated leachate was returned to the landfill.
The system ran great for many years. The customer was aware that membrane filters don’t last forever and do need to be replaced every few years. But, because the service contractor wanted to minimize expenses, they never replaced any of the filters and ran it for about 8 years on the original filters and then just stopped using the system when they were dead. Unfortunately, soon after that, during a heavy rainstorm, their leachate storage pond overflowed and failed releasing millions of gallons of leachate into local surface waters. This catastrophic event could have been avoided and would have cost much less to deal with if the filters had been replaced and the system kept in operation. Business can be risky enough without taking huge gambles.
PFAS – The Hidden Beverage ingredient
In 2023, a sports drink company was sued for having detectable amounts of PFAS chemicals found in the drink without disclosing that. PFAS are fluorinated chemicals associated with health risks that have been used for decades. Because they don’t degrade, these have migrated everywhere in the environment and are found in detectable levels in animals and plants and also drinking water. Since the sports drink company uses town drinking water that has PFAS present to make its drink product, it is now liable and at risk.
The EPA has established health risk levels for two of these chemicals in drinking water at 4 parts per trillion and has a road map to establish standards for industry and for drinking water. The chemicals could be labeled as hazardous substances and may even require a Right to Know provision. Even before new rules are established, beverage companies may wish to be proactive to avoid future problems.
PFAS has been observed in several kinds of beverages including bottled water. This will depend on where you get your water. Just being below the 4 ppt threshold the EPA is considering may not be enough. As part of the Right to Know procedure, if there is any detectable amount but this is not disclosed, there is risk of litigation.
The EPA has developed a method of testing for PFAS in beer and it was found in most of the beers tested. This is especially true in smaller scale breweries and correlates with the PFAS found in the raw source water. 18% of breweries are located in areas where PFAS is also found in the drinking water.
Spring water is often thought to be better than bottled water purified by reverse osmosis filtration. RO membranes can remove PFAS chemicals, so if the spring water source has PFAS, that is going in to the bottle. The EPA is considering 4 ppt as the maximum safe threshold. Several sparkling spring waters have been tested and were found to contain PFAS including:
- Topo Chico Natural Mineral Water (9.76 ppt)
- Polar Natural Seltzer Water (6.41 ppt)
- Bubly Blackberry Sparking Water (2.24 ppt)
- Poland Spring Zesty Sparking Water (1.66 ppt)
- Canada Dry Lemon Sparkling Water (1.24 ppt)
- Perrier Natural Sparkling Mineral Water (1.1 ppt)
Reverse osmosis membranes are able to filter water and remove PFAS chemicals. PFAS in your wastewater may also be a liability. While conventional spiral RO membranes are the best to use for filtering town water that is pretty clean, more advanced RO systems could be needed to treat wastewater or the reject from a spiral RO system. VSEP has been used for 15 years to remove fluorinated chemicals from industrial effluent. It has also been used to volume reduce spiral reject and increase the water yield for bottling. Non-detect levels of PFAS can be obtained with this oscillating RO membrane.
Colorado VSEP Manure Study Proves the Power of Vibration Membranes
In collaboration with Colorado State University, New Logic Research conducted a full-scale pilot study on Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP) technology for treating flushed dairy manure in Colorado. Using vibrating reverse osmosis, the system recycles water and concentrates solids for methane production via anaerobic digestion. A detailed report on the study has been published, highlighting impressive results.
This study evaluates an integrated system combining a vibrating pre-screen and a vibrating reverse osmosis (VSEP). The VSEP unit operated at 400 PSI, achieving significant contaminant removal rates. After VSEP treatment, TSS and VSS concentrations were reduced below detection limits. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal reached 98.7%. Total nitrogen (TN) and ammonia reductions were 92.1% and 84.1%, respectively. The treated water quality met irrigation standards, with some parameters requiring adjustment for livestock use. The filtrate quality showed potential for livestock drinking water, needing occasional pH adjustments.
The concentrated solids from the VSEP have significant potential for methane production exhibiting a methane potential of 227.8 ± 10.8 mL CH₄/g VS. This indicates the feasibility of using the solids for renewable energy generation through anaerobic digestion.
The VSEP system outperforms traditional membrane technologies in treating high-strength dairy wastewater. Conventional systems often require extensive pretreatment to manage fouling and maintain efficiency. The VSEP system effectively handles high solids and organic loads without extensive operational management.
The VSEP system demonstrated superior treatment efficiency compared to other membrane technologies for high-strength wastewater. The VSEP RO unit maintained stable water flux and recovery rates, demonstrating efficiency. Cleaning methods, including chemical cleanings, are essential for maintaining performance. Membrane lifespan estimated at about three years, with variability based on feedstock strength. The system reduces total wastewater volume by over 70%, lowering transportation costs.
The VSEP RO system is a promising solution for sustainable dairy manure management, enabling water reuse and energy recovery. High contaminant removal rates and quality permeate suitable for irrigation and livestock use.
Water is a Part of War for Milenia
A report on Global Water Security by the National Intelligence Council has determined that the demand for freshwater will exceed the availability by 2040. Nobody is planning for this outcome. The report acknowledges that in the next decade there will be challenges and small scale conflicts and instability, but the large crisis is not far behind that. Water shortages can lead to food shortages, power supply problems, economic impacts, and government instability. As this develops, the crisis will begin in areas where water is scarce already such as the middle east, the Southwest US, and central Asia.
Because water is a necessity for survival, it has been used as a weapon during military conflicts throughput history. The Pacific Institute publishes a list of recorded water conflicts going back to 2500 BC. Here is a partial list of some of the notable events:
430 BC – During the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans were accused of causing a plague outbreak by poisoning drinking water cisterns in Athens.
537 AD – During the fall of Rome, the invading barbarian Goths cut off the aqueduct water supply to Rome while besieging the city
1863 – During the American Civil War, General Grant ordered the destruction of levees to cut off water supplies to the Confederates.
1941 – The Dnieper hydropower plant was strategically important dam in Ukraine during World War II. During a retreat, Ukrainians blew up the dam to remove the availability of water.
1964 – The Cuban government shut off water supplies to the naval base at Guantanamo Bay.
1992 – Serbia cuts off 80% of the water supply and the power to Sarajevo during a siege.
2000 – During a severe drought in Kenya, a large group of water starved monkeys attacked a water tanker in a village leaving eight monkeys dead and ten Kenyans injured.
2004 – Two Somalian clans, the Murusade and the Duduble fought for control of a single water well leaving 23 people dead.
2014 – 1000 people were killed during a war between herders and farmers over disputes about water access in Nigeria.
Since these disputes have occurred for as long as mankind has existed, to prevent this in the future proper planning, water conservation, education and cooperation are needed. New Logic is proud to be in the water business and doing our little part to save the world.
